Articles & Summaries in Economics, Political Science, Psychology, & More

William Shakespeare of Elizabethan England lived a mysterious and sometimes scandalous existence, causing puzzlement and great fantastic stories, both true and false, to abound. His education remains to be speculated at as does his marriage. After leaving for England, what profession did he take up before appearing on stage? The most prominent mystery surrounding the magnificent bard’s life is the idea that he may have not even written any of his own play or poems at all. Exploring these unknown facts and rumors sheds light on our understanding of the immortal genius.

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The arguments of Barrington Moore’s Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy and of North and Weingast’s Constitutions and Commitment: The Evolution of Institutions Governing Public Choice in Seventeenth-Century England on the genesis of capitalist democracy in England mostly supplement each other by examining different variables and processes that relate to England’s evolution. Both works stipulate that England’s capitalist democracy entailed social elements that sought a free economy and did so by political means. Calling said elements the “commercial class,” Moore explains how this class emerged, came to power, and saw its policies implemented. North and Weingast, however, explain how political institutions evolved to allow a free market economy and how the commercial class’ interests translated into a fair, balanced, and checked English government. In a sense, Moore explains how initial conditions established the commercial impulse that would eventually drive free market democracy and how the impulse came to manifest itself politically and legally. North and Weingast, arguing on the precondition of the existence of the commercial class, explain how the evolution of political institutions, driven by economic motives, created a balanced, accountable government that led to a politically and economically free society. Thus the two arguments overlap in how the commercial impulse arrived at the doors of government, but supplement each other as one explains the cause chiefly using socioeconomic variables as the other explains the effects chiefly using institutional variables.

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Concrete characters, like people, have many different aspects of their personality and are complex creations. These characters leave room for analysis and provoke the reader into asking questions about the character’s personality. Shakespeare’s Measure for Measure presents such characters that can be read and interpreted in numerous different ways. One particular character, Duke Vincentio, seemingly manipulates the events of the play to result in a happy ending. Carolyn Brown’s article, “The Homoeroticism of Duke Vincentio”, suggests that the Duke has hidden, sexual motives that are discreetly expressed in his speech, his actions, and through his relationships with other characters.

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Self-injury is defined as "A deliberate, intentional injury to one’s own body that causes tissue damage or leaves marks for more than a few minutes which is done to cope with an overwhelming or distressing situation” (Cutter, Jaffe & Segal, 2008). Methods of self-injury vary from person to person, but the most common form of self-injury is by cutting. By using a sharp object such as a razor blade, self-inflicted cuts are made on the skin. Other types of self-injury include, but are not limited to, the act of self burning , excessive picking at healing wounds, pulling out hair, and digging nails into the skin. “Although cutting is one of the most common and well documented forms, over sixteen forms have been documented”(Whitlock, Eckenrode, & Silverman, 2006 ). When most people cut themselves, there is often a ritualistic aspect involved. This can be in where they hurt themselves on their body (ie. on the underside of their arms, or their stomach) the environment in which they choose to hurt themselves (ie. a bathroom, or bedroom) or the time of day in which they most often will self-injure. The individual may choose to play certain music during the time they are hurting themselves. Many even clean their tools a certain way before and after hurting themselves. After they hurt themselves, the individual will often bandage it a specific way, write about it in a journal or possibly, just go to sleep. The act of cutting oneself can become just as ritualistic and necessary to the individual as brushing their teeth or cleaning their room. At some points, those who self-harm may need to self-harm, but is not in a safe environment to do so, or does not have their tools on hand. When this occurs, they will often find an alternative place to cut themselves, such as a bathroom stall. They will use a different object to hurt themselves, such as a safety pin or push-pin, and they will skip their ritualistic procedure all together (Alderman, 1997).

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Abstract.

Since the 1970’s discursive practices have been employed when analysing issues within personal identity. This study aims to do just that by analysing the discursive constructions identified within gender differences and approaches to parenting. For this purpose a number of texts were employed and a Foucauldian approach to discourse analysis was carried out on selected articles. Several discursive constructions were identified such as the primary use of female expert opinions, the textual imagery of the father as inane and refreshingly the emergence of a non-gender specific magazine aimed at both parents.

Keywords: Foucauldian discourse analysis, parenting, father, gender.

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Although education is traditionally a state and local responsibility, the federal government first became involved with its policies in the mid-1960’s and remains an active component even today, thus giving way to a presidential proposal entitled “No Child Left Behind” in 2001. Up until this bill proposal, Washington had spent nearly $130 billion since 1965 and more than $80 billion in the past decade alone in an unsuccessful effort to close the achievement gap between disadvantaged students and their more affluent peers (see “Issue Summary: H.R. 1 Enhances Accountability”). A recent study by the American Legislative Exchange Council demonstrated that while per pupil expenditures had increased nationwide by 22.8% over the past twenty years, little improvement has been made towards equity of education. From this data, it becomes clear that money is alone will not increase achievement, programs must be held accountable to obtain the desired results (“Issue Summary: H.R. 1 Enhances Accountability”). The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 as proposed by President George W. Bush was designed to reduce bureaucracy, provide additional flexibility to states and school districts to “tailor spending to programs that meet the unique needs of students and eliminate programs that divert resources from school.” (“Issue Summary: H.R. 1 Helps Close the Achievement Gap”), and to allow local school districts to transfer up to fifty percent of federal education dollars they receive as long as they demonstrate results in an effort to cut “red tape.” According to a summary issued by the House Education and Workforce Committee, H.R. 1 (the No Child Left Behind Act) was designed to establish a comprehensive accountability system, asking states to build on their existing assessment tests by designing and implementing annual math and reading tests for students in grades three through eight with an amount of federal money designated to redesign tests already in place. Additionally, this act requires that school districts annually report to the public on academic performance as measured by these assessment tests in each school of their jurisdiction, providing information on how students are doing in comparison to those in other schools in the district and across the state, graduate raters, and teacher qualifications to assist parents in judging how their local school stacks up against others statewide. If a low performing school as defined by the state does not make adequate yearly progress after three years of poor testing, students in the failing school are eligible to receive a scholarship for outside private tutoring to transfer to another public school (“H.R. 1, Questions and Answers.”). States that also fail to show adequate yearly progress will additionally be subject to losing a portion of their administrative funds. Thus, according to the issue summary “By establishing a system of rewards and sanctions for states and school districts to hold them accountable for increasing student achievement, H.R. 1 would, for the first time, demand real from public schools that receive federal education resources,” (“Issue Summary: H.R. 1 Helps Close the Achievement Gap”).

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The political scene of post-Renaissance Venice starkly contrasted with that of London, reflecting great differences between each city’s level of economic and social stability. Although each city possessed its own underlying economic history and set of social circumstances, they still shared many common practices.

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The authorship of William Shakespeare frequently places the ultimate power in the hands of female protagonists, and in doing so, implicitly suggests that women’s involvement in politics at the sovereign level represents a danger to society at large. To gain credibility as an autonomous leader, or the means behind the “puppeting” of a male in power, each female character must be stripped of every ounce of femininity, just as was the case in Shakespeare’s Macbeth. In his characters, particularly Lady Macbeth, Shakespeare explores gender anxieties; in his plot, he embraces conflict and turmoil stemming from this anxiety, and in his play’s resolution, he bestows power back into a patriarchal system, satisfying the desires of the people for governmental stability. It is through the evolution of Lady Macbeth’s nature that Shakespeare offers an indirect commentary of his time concerning female leadership capabilities.

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Certain excerpts from Sigmund Freud’s essay of the human mind, “Civilization and Its Discontents”, could be identified as corresponding concepts that were interwoven in the novel Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. The great analytical work of the well known psychiatrist assessed the events and happenings of this book indirectly by way of common theories in which human might act. “Civilization and Its Discontents” forced upon its readers particular ideas that could also be found symbolically in Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. Both the texts of Sigmund Freud and Robert Louis Stevenson shared common themes and ideas.

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Both ancient and modern Chinese societies have held knowledge of refined cooking skills in the highest esteem, and so thus, it is through examination of the earliest diets and most contemporary lavish feasts that one may gain an appreciation and true understanding of the culture. Food as an international language can provide valuable clues to the history and customs of any region and by drawing parallels between the Chinese cuisine of antiquity and that of modern times, the evolution of a society may be evaluated. At a time when most civilizations regarded foods simply in terms of survival, the Chinese had begun to develop an intricate system of preparation, service and consumption. In fact so important was the art of cooking that according to K.C. Chang, I Yin, a prime minister of the Shang Dynasty and formerly celebrated chef, initiated his expansive political career through the strength of his culinary prowess. (Hom, 21). By inspection of the regional flavors in Chinese cuisine today as compared with the ancient diet, the influences of both eastern and western cultures to the art of food preparation, and the progression from herbal remedies to seasonings for foods, one can gain learn much about the evolution of the Chinese way of life.

Over the many centuries comprising China’s history, each area of China has developed its own distinctive customs, culture, and character. Because of climate and the resulting limited crop availability, each section has adapted its own food and cooking style. Although basic cooking techniques remain similar throughout the country, each region features special ingredients and seasonings. A traditional Chinese family meal consists of four main dishes: meat or poultry, fish or seafood, a vegetable, and soup all over the country. Despite varying flavors, the menu always includes a basic staple dish of rice, steamed breads, pancakes, or noodles. The similarities in Chinese cuisine in each region end at this point, as the tastes and ingredients diverge to create a much-diversified menu.

In general, there are four main “schools” of Chinese cooking, the Cantonese method of the southern region, the Peking or Mandarin style from the north, Shanghai cooking on the east coast, and the Szechuan variety of cooking in inland China. The northern school associated with the city of Canton and southern China has evolved a unique history and has become the most familiar with Westerners because most of those who immigrated to Europe and the Americas during the nineteenth century originated from Canton. Canton was an ancient trading port and the home of many wealthy Chinese merchants and foreigners. Resulting from this varying culture and proximity to other lands via trade, unusual delicacies were introduced including frogs’ legs, snakes, turtles, and dogs. This region is subtropical with a humid climate, possessing an extended year-round growing season. The favorable climate denotes this area as primarily an agricultural region with vegetables and fruits such as bananas, pineapples, oranges, and lychees remaining abundant. Dim sun is prepared elsewhere in China, but it is in Canton that these “dot the heart” treats, including pastries, dumplings, soups, breads, cake, and noodles were most distinguished. The Cantonese slightly undercook their food to accentuate natural flavorings in steaming, blanching, barbecuing, roasting, and simmering. (Yu, 8).

The Peking or Mandarin style encompassing Peking, the northern provinces of Shandong, Hebei, and Shanxis as well as Mongolia, is arguably the most eclectic area of China. The climate for this region varies extremely as the plains covering majority of the land are beaten with cold Siberian winds during the winter and hot breezes from the Gobi desert in the summer. Shandong grows vast amounts of wheat, barley, millet, corn, and soybeans, however, as it has a suitable temperate climate. Because of the somewhat cooler climate, wheat rather than rice became the primary staple crop, and meals often partially consist of steamed breads, pancakes, and noodles. Palace chefs of Peking introduced new ingredients to suit the ruling monarchs, creating new dishes, which are still widely served today. Many beef and lamb dishes are present in the Mandarin diet, as Moslems in the north would not eat pork for religious reasons.

On the eastern coast where Shanghai cooking dominates, dishes are strongly flavored with soy sauce and sugar also including a wide variety of seafood from the nearby Pacific Ocean. A subtropical climate with warm, wet summers and cool winters provide a year-round growing season. Wheat, barely, rice, corn, sweet potatoes, soybeans, bamboo shoots, beans, melons, gourds, squashes, and leafy vegetables have become a vital part of the eastern Chinese diet. The Yangtse River provides freshwater crabs, shrimp, and carp inland. Shaohsing wine, soy sauce, and Chinkiang vinegar are each unique to this region. (Yu, 8).

The final region, inland China distinguished by the Szechuan style of cooking, produces hot, spicy dishes. In the providences of Sichuan and Hunana, the climate is comprised of warm, humid summers and mild winters, allowing subtropical fruits to thrive such as oranges, tangerines, and kumquats. Dried ingredients such as black mushrooms, wood ears, and silver tree ears in addition to the red chili peppers were used along with peppercorns, garlic, onions, dried tangerine peel, and gingerroot, make for a spicy cuisine. Flavoring and condiments create an intricate blending of hot, sour and sweet tastes in the western Chinese diet. (Yu, 9).

The ancient Chinese diet was relatively indistinctive early on, both bland in taste and in texture before the influence of the cookery of different cultures. Unlike the diverse and exceedingly tasty food served in the various regions of China today, early menus consisted of dishes lacking in flavor from spices and foreign vegetables. Despite the seemingly unvarying meals of the early Chinese people, many of the staple foods in modern China were as important to their ancient ancestors. Archaeologists have uncovered farming tools and pots containing grains of rice that date back to 5000BC. (Hom, 21). Flour milling, introduced into the Chinese diet during 206 BC, would later evolve into noodle making. (Wellman). In addition to the agrarian food derived from the earth in the ancient Chinese diet, wild beasts and seafood caught comprised the savory, yet very bland diet.

As the Chinese culture evolved and diversified, so did its everyday and imperial cuisine. For thousands of years, the Chinese empire undertook extensive land development including constructing vast irrigation, flood control, and water transport facilities to assist with agriculture. During the Han Dynasty (200BC – 220AD), Chinese agricultural advancements greatly increased production. Low taxes, land distribution, and public projects in as well as the dissemination of agricultural knowledge aided in the rising prosperity of Chinese agriculture. (Hom, 66). The Southern Song Dynasty (1126 – 1279AD) was famous for the refinements it brought to Chinese imperial cuisine. (Hom, 67). During this time, a huge influx of Buddhist influence introduced many delicious vegetarian meals. Often times meals of the emperor would consist of thirty courses composed of nearly one hundred dishes. An official taster, an eunuch, sampled each of the emperor’s dishes first to test for poisons before the monarch was able to consume his meal. (Hom, 68). The middle class also adapted its own culinary style, adopting a hybrid of wealthy settings with simpler, more balanced dishes. The late ancient Chinese cuisine had become altered greatly over the country’s two thousand year history, even more so with the introduction of new fruits, vegetables, and spices from far away lands.

Many of the “traditional” Chinese dishes have been adopted from foreign sources either partially with the contribution of new ingredients or completely with innovative new tastes. Because the country has many natural barriers including the Pacific Ocean, desert, and mountains as well as the man-made Great Wall from the Bohai Sea to the Gobi desert, it seems that China was relatively sealed off from the outside world from any “barbarians” for many centuries. However, this great civilization was very accessible for other cultures through trade, although on China’s own terms. Somewhat dependent on the outside world for livestock, produce, seafood, spices, poultry, rice, wine, and wheat, China became a central location for the convergence of many diverse oriental cuisines with the construction Silk Road, built in the third century AD during the Han Dynasty. During the Tang Dynasty (618 – 907 AD), grapes, spinach, lettuce, figs, sugar beets, leeles, and shallots, as well as pine nuts, almonds, and pistachios were introduced from the near East. ( Hom, 51). During this dynasty, traders from many areas and nations including Japan, Korea, Arabia, India, and Persia delivered their goods and traded for many rich products in China, leaving behind facets of their own cultures, especially new foods. The growing influence of Buddhism, which had traveled via the Silk Road from India and Nepal, and its emphasis on vegetarianism led to innovative uses of wheat products in the form of dumplings and fried dough strips. The Mongols introduced yogurt, game, goat, mutton, and the mare’s milk derivative, Koumiss upon taking over China in 1279 AD. (Hom, 53) Despite the radical invasion of Mongolian leader, Kublai Khan, the Chinese menu remained unchanged for the most part throughout the occupation. The earliest western influences arrived from southern Europe during the Ming Dynasty (1368 – 1644). (Hom, 54). New World foods including peanuts, sweet potatoes, and corn were introduced by the Portuguese and Spanish explorers when traveling from the New World to India, China, and the Philippines in the early sixteenth century. (Hom, 54). Through Chinese traders who initially left China but then later returned, squash, tomatoes, and chili peppers were brought from the Americas approximately one hundred years ago. (Hom, 51). With the contribution of foods from various countries over thousands of years, the Chinese cuisine has culminated into a diverse sampling of many cultures from around the world.

The most prominent flavors in Chinese food are created by a careful mix of seasonings comprised of gingerroot, scallions, garlic, star anise, and red pepper, some of which have been introduced by other cultures and were used in ancient times as herbal remedies. In seasoning their meals, Chinese chefs believe that harmony and balance must be obtained by everything in life, including food. Each food is classified as either hot (Yang), denoting that it has a stimulating effect on oneself, or cold (Yin), implying a calming, quieting effect. Seasonings were originally paired with foods to neutralize their effects on the body. Gingerroots are served in soups, pickled in a sweet and sour dressing, and sprinkled on top of dishes as a garnish. In a stronger, more mature version of the herb, gingerroot is used to remove strong tastes, mainly in seafood. Garlic is used liberally in many Chinese dishes, as are scallions. The white portion of the scallion is usually used as flavoring and the greens for garnish. Star anise, a seasoning with a licorice-like flavor is used primarily in marinades and in braised dishes and stews. (Hom, 96). The most common flavorings include gingerroots, scallions, garlic, and star anise, all of which were originally used as herbal remedies in ancient times.

The seasonings made of herbs in modern Chinese cuisine were in fact first used in ancient times for medicinal purposes. Herbal remedies were time-tested for effectiveness and safety for generations not just a few years or decades as is done today through human trial instead of animal testing. Over many years, the toxic properties and side effects were noted in each herbal treatment, and most of those that were proved too harmful were discarded. The Shennong Herbal (Shen Nong Ben Cao) introduced in 200 BC, is currently considered the oldest Chinese herbal guide. This record contains a listing for three hundred sixty five herbal combinations, one hundred twenty considered non-toxic, one hundred twenty considered mildly toxic, and one hundred twenty five toxic. Garlic, scientifically known as Allium Sativum and called da suan by the Chinese is cultivated world wide for use as a condiment and as an herbal cure. According to Li Shizhen, garlic was introduced about two thousand years ago during the Han Dynasty. Garlic is used to treat bacterial dysentery, amebic dysentery, enteritis, sores, carbuncles, common cold, whooping cough, internal parasites, pulmonary tuberculosis, bellyache, nosebleeds, and snake and insect bites. The northern Chinese employ garlic quite frequently, but those in the south tend to avoid it because of its odor. Gingerroot is another herb found in both Chinese cookbooks and herbal guidebooks. Gingerroot is believed to have originated from the Pacific islands and is now grown mostly in China, India, Jamaica, and Nigeria. In ancient medicine, gingerroot was first introduced at least two thousand years ago as described in the Shennong Herbal. Traditionally, gingerroot has been considered to have warming, diaphoretic, anti-nausea, and anti-emetic properties. Its most common uses include the common cold, nausea, vomiting, wheezing, coughing, nasal congestion, abdominal distention, and diarrhea. The most widespread ancient gingerroot treatment was to remedy motion sickness. A small piece of gingerroot is eaten during a boat or car ride to serve this purpose. Star anise, also a popular Chinese seasoning, first became popular as an herbal treatment. Termed ba jia hui xiang, meaning “eight-horned fennel” in Chinese, it is most frequently grown in the southern providences of Guangxi, Guangdons, and Yunnan. Star anise has been used in Chinese for many centuries, but it was not until the sixteenth century that its usage was first recorded. It was first employed to warm internal organs, particularly the heart, kidney, bladder, and small intestines, as well as for pain relief. Additionally, star anise was used to treat vomiting, lumbago due to kidney deficiency, and abdominal pain due to hernia. (Leung, 9-18). Seasonings in early Chinese cuisine were first introduced and utilized as ancient herbal remedies, many of which are still in use today.

Through the exploration of Chinese diet both past and present, the nature and progression of Chinese civilization is revealed. From the initial publication of the “Li Chi”, the most extensive handbook describing social behavior ever complied back in the Han Dynasty (Hom, 22), to the modern Chinese cookbook, one observes the great importance placed upon cooking traditions by the Chinese people, as the country and populace have evolved over nearly two thousand years.

Works Cited

Chinese Cuisine. 4 Jan. 2002. Cuisine Net: Diner’s Digest. 17 Feb. 2002

<http://www.cuisinenet.com/digest/region/china/index.shtml>.

History of Chinese Cooking. 10 Oct. 2001. Cooking Together. 17 Feb. 2002

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Hom, Ken. The Taste of China. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1990.

Leung, Albert Y. Chinese Herbal Remedies. New York: Universe, 1984.

Low, Jennie. Chopsticks, Cleaver, and Wok: Homestyle Chinese Cooking. San

Francisco: Chronicle, 1987.

Wellman, Jos. History of Cooking: Evolution of Cooking from B.C. up to and Including

the 7^th century A.D.. Tallyrand’s Culinary Fare. 17 Feb. 2002

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Yu, Ling. Cooking the Chinese Way. Minneapolis: Lerner, 1982.