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“Tourette Syndrome, ADD and ADHD Information Center. ” Tourette Syndrome Online.
19 Nov. 2004 http://www. tourette-syndrome. com
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Sexual addiction is a pattern of sexual actions and mannerisms that are acted out even though it is detrimental to the effected individual and/or to others. Interestingly, the medical community has no consensus that sexual addiction actually exists. And it is not presently included in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (D. S. M. Instead, Sexual Addiction’s diagnostic criteria are parallel to those the D. S. M. provides for other addictions. This paper will define and investigate Sexual Addiction (SA), its epidemiology, manifestations and discuss the consequences of Sexual Addiction. Additionally, the Sexual Addiction cycle will be examined and the etiology and treatment options for this condition will be reviewed. Lastly, the controversy over diagnosis and diagnostic criteria will be scrutinized.
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Sexual Addiction
The term ‘compulsive sexual behavior’ has been used to describe sexual addiction; the Mayo Clinic in its Mental Health Report further explains as those suffering from condition have "an overwhelming need for sex and are so intensely preoccupied with this need that it interferes with [careers and relationships]. [One] may spend inordinate amounts of time in sexually related activities and neglect important aspects of …day-to-day life in social, occupational and recreational areas. [One] may find [him/herself] failing repeatedly at attempts to reduce or control …sexual activities or desires. "
The occurrence of sexual addiction is quite difficult to ascertain, essentially for the reason that addicts are guarded and secretive. Those in the mental health field who are proponents of including the condition in the DSM propose that it is usually seen in connection with other addictions, in addition to stress and mood disorders. On occasion, when several addictions are present (alcohol, drugs, gambling, etc. SA is considered the "core" addiction.
Sexual addiction is speculated to be (but is not always) linked with Narcissistic personality disorder, manic-depression and Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). In the past this condition had been thought of as an exclusively male dilemma, but current research has suggested it may also be widespread among women.
Patrick Carnes PhD. a prolific researcher on this subject outlines the following signs of sexual addiction:
1. A pattern of out-of-control sexual behavior
2. Severe consequences due to sexual behavior
3. Inability to stop despite adverse consequences
4. Persistent pursuit of self-destructive or high-risk behavior
5. Ongoing desire or effort to limit sexual behavior
6. Sexual obsession and fantasy as a primary coping strategy
7. Increasing amounts of sexual experience because the current level of activity is no longer sufficient
8. Severe mood changes around sexual activity
9. Inordinate amounts of time spent in obtaining sex, being sexual, or recovering from sexual experience
10. Neglect of important social, occupational, or recreational activities because of sexual behavior
The supporters of the sexual addiction concept believe that sexual addicts may derive enjoyment in frequent sexual intercourse and other sexual activities, although the primary incentive of this addiction is “more the enjoyment of the journey rather than the destination. ” This means that sexual addicts do not need “an orgasmic event” to feel that their addiction has been satisfied. Hence, they are also known as "chemical addicts". While they pursue sexually (and even romantically) stimulating activities, they basically crave the chemicals released in the brain. An example of such a brain chemical is the "feel good" neurotransmitter dopamine. These heightened levels provide them with feelings of euphoria. An orgasm (may) boost this level even higher. This chemical reaction can be compared to the use of certain illegal drugs. Methamphetamines or cocaine, for example, can also assist in the same release.
Those individuals who cope with mood issues may learn of the calming effects derived through these brain chemicals, and quickly recognize which behaviors can successfully replicate the experience. Subsequently, a “cascading effect” commences. Already susceptible with respect to ‘compulsive or obsessive behavior’, the sexual addict begins duplicating ‘rewarding’ actions that swiftly establishes a “conditioned response”. As time goes by, the regular release of these mood elevating brain chemicals into the body causes them to lose their effectiveness. This means that the addict will need to increase or intensify the compulsive behavior for the same effects to be achieved.
Another point to be noted is that the addict’s inclinations can also be observed by the rate that masturbation is used for satisfaction. Frequently, masturbation will be used to the point of personal injury or to where it notably gets in the way of everyday life. In some cases masturbatory activities can very well replace the desire for sexual interactions with others.
There are times when some sexual addicts do not feel comfortable enough to be involved with people they know, (which actually happen quite often). They then look for strangers for anonymous sex or search for ‘new love’ through infidelity. Prostitutes may be employed, both because of the anonymity and the seemingly non-judgmental readiness to engage in the unusual sexual requests that some sex addicts have.
As noted earlier, a decisive attribute of sexual addiction is it’s evidently ‘compulsive & unmanageable’ makeup. A normal person may look at an attractive person as they drive past, a sexual addict might drive around the block a number of times to stare again. In order to repeat the experience over and over they may even arrange and organize methods so they can spot attractive people.
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Addicts can squander an astonishing sum of money and time on their inclinations, completely deficient in the capability to control it. They habitually undergo a nearly ‘trance-like’ state during which their actions can go on for many hours.
Similar to other addictions, some addicts go through ‘episodic binges’ (between these binges they may well believe they are completely normal), some others may endure more of a continuous level of the crisis. There are some sexual addicts who move back and forth in opposite end of the continuum, engaging in sexual anorexia, where they repress their tendencies in a manner so that they have absolutely no sexual experiences.
This is in no way a cure for the basic compulsion nor is it an effective manner of control, but, like food addictions is plainly one more symptom of the addiction. Some sexual addicts operate in more intrusive ways or advance to them as they go through diminishing "highs" for their unusual activities. Patrick Carnes PhD. maintains that explicit activities do not identify addiction, “it is the compulsive nature of the behaviors that demonstrates addiction”. Addicts often attempt to stop, but fail. Their behavior generally conforms to a cycle:
1. Preoccupation
2. Ritualization
3. Compulsive sexual behavior
4. Despair
In order to get rid of negative feelings the addict almost immediately happens to become engrossed with sexual thoughts again, resuming the ‘addictive cycle’. Patrick Carnes theorizes that the cycle begins with the "Core Beliefs" which addicts ‘knows’ to be true. Such as; "I am basically a bad, unworthy person. " "No one would love me as I am. " "My needs are never going to be met if I have to depend on others. " "Sex is my most important need. " These attitudes impel the obsession in its advancement and eventual destructive course.
First a “pain agent” activates emotional discomfort (e. g. shame, unresolved conflict) the sex addict is incapable of dealing with the pain agent in an emotionally healthy manner. Before resorting to sexually behavior, the sex addict goes through a phase of mental obsession/preoccupation. They disassociate (moving away from his/her feelings). Thus a division starts between the mind and the emotional self. Once this ‘disconnect’ takes hold, the addict becomes pre-occupied with acting out behaviors. The reality of the situation becomes blocked out and distorted.
Preoccupation, or in other words "sexual pressure" means that the addict is consumed about being sexual or romantic. Consequently ‘fantasy’ turns into a fixation that serves to avoid life. ‘Thinking about sex and planning out’ how to reach orgasm can continue for minutes or hours before moving into the next stage of the cycle. These fixations are strengthen and reinforced through ‘ritualization’ or acting out. A sex addict may for example, go to a strip show to heighten arousal until he/she is ‘beyond the point of saying no’. This helps detach reality from sexual obsession. Once the addict is in the midst of the ritual, there is very little hope of stopping that cycle.
The subsequent stage of the cycle is sexual compulsivity or "sex act". Tensions felt by addict diminished and for the short term they feel better, due to the release that occurs. Compulsivity merely signifies that addict regularly gets a pint where sex becomes unavoidable, no matter what the consequence.
After the compulsive act there may be realization and acknowledgement that the addict has become nothing more than ‘a slave to the addiction’. And the addict launches into feelings of shame and despair. ‘The last time the Addict was at this low point, they probably promised to never do it again’.
Etiology of the condition
There are many consequences which result from sexual addiction. This includes the ‘social cost’; sexual preoccupation can lead to loss of friendship and family relationships. Anxiety and stress are a general theme in the lives of sex addicts, as they live with the ‘constant fear of discovery’.
Guilt and shame are also commonplace, as the addict’s lifestyle is mostly at odds with personal values and beliefs. Compulsive sexual thoughts and/or behavior leads to ‘severe depression, often with suicidal ideation, low self-esteem, shame, self-hatred, hopelessness, despair, helplessness, intense anxiety, loneliness, resentment, self pity, self blame ,moral conflict, fear of abandonment, spiritual bankruptcy, distorted thinking, remorse, and self-deceit’.
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The sexual addict who is in a marriage or committed relationship will find that his/her behavior and activities outside the primary relationship can result in loss of self-esteem to himself/herself as well as their partner. Besides severe stress to the relationship, parenting and bonds with children may also be detrimentally affected.
With increased high risk activities, Sex addicts may place themselves in situations of potential harm, which may even result in death. Many diseases may occur due to sexual addiction; these include but are not limited to genital injury, cervical cancer, HIV/AIDS, herpes, genital warts and other sexually transmitted diseases.
Sexual addiction can result in violation of the law, in cases such as sexual harassment, obscene phone calls, voyeurism, prostitution, rape, obscene phone calls, exhibitionism, incest and child molestation. There is also a related chance of loss of professional status and professional licensure, they may go to jail, get sued, or incur other financial and legal consequences because of their behavior.
There are also financial consequences, as debts may arise from the cost of prostitutes, cyber/phone sex and multiple affairs. Moreover, there are indirect costs associated with legal fees, the cost of divorce or separation, and decreased productivity or job loss.
Assessment and treatment
An assortment of surveys and examinations have been created in an effort to assess sexual addiction, but a small number of, if any have been officially evaluated, or verified to be correct. Advocators of the concept of the sexual addiction consider the cycle and the associated beliefs clearly exemplify the sexual addict.
Patrick Carnes PhD puts forward a fundamental test in order to deduce if a specific sexual behavior has become addictive:
A copy of an actual test designed by Patrick Carnes is included towards the end of this report (figure 1)
In contrast with the aims in treatment of other forms of dependency (such as drug or alcohol), the therapeutic objective in sexual addiction is abstinence only from compulsive behavior with the goal and adaptation of a healthy sexuality. Most SA treatment programs recommend that patients refrain from all sexual activities (including masturbation) for 30 to 90 days to make it clear that life without sex is possible. It has been noted that when some sexual addicts stop all sexual activity, they report withdrawal symptoms akin to those encountered by cocaine addicts.
It is crucial that the Addict’s partner (if he/she has a significant other) be involved with the treatment program. In fact, the Mental Health Report by the Mayo Clinic categorically states that the most important predictor of relapse after treatment of sexual addiction is failure of the spouse to be involved in the treatment program.
The conduct of sex addicts has intense effects on partners, children and other family. The addict is typically ‘partially or totally unaware’ that they have affected those close to them. Families in turn cultivate detrimental coping skills as they make every effort to acclimatize to the addict’s irregular moods behavior. Hence, friends and families will often need to be involved in the recovery process.
Recovery is a course that works when there is:
Due to the fact that most sex addicts were often sexually abused as children, they may have distorted ideas about sex and they usually require information about healthy sexuality. Therapists may need to work with early trauma and provide reassurance during treatment. Shame, a chief concern for sex addicts, is best addressed in group therapy; moreover, other recovering addicts can provide both support and confrontation. Group support can be an influential tool for overcoming the shame that most sex addicts feel.
The 12 steps of Alcoholics Anonymous have been adapted for use in many programs which deal with addictions. A program designed for sexual addiction can be particularly helpful in the recovery process. It is also noted that by the time sex addicts seek help, ‘their marriage or relationship is often in great distress’. The lack of communication, growing distrust, resentment and anger are common in such situations. A therapist can be of great help during recovery. Nevertheless SA, as with other addictions, cannot be "cured" and there might be the risk of a relapse. To overcome this, sex addicts must be trained to stay away from certain people and situations that can ‘trigger old urges and behaviors’.
Though, not empirically proven, some mental health providers say that some patients benefit from specific drugs, such as fluoxetine hydrochloride (Prozac) and domipramine hydrochloride (Anafranil).
Controversy over Diagnosis and Diagnostic Criteria
Those in the mental health field specializing in sexual behavior normally have the same opinion on what represents ‘out-of-control sexual behavior’, but they disagree over whether it is correctly identify as an ‘addiction’ or as an indicator of an essential obsessive-compulsive disorder, which can result in sexual obsessions.
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Many people and professional associations do not recognize SA as a legitimate form of addiction. One argument is based on whether the expression has any accurate connotation for describing human sexual behavior.
Some others see sexual addiction as an excuse for wanton behavior. Other characteristics or symptoms of this supposed condition are not easy to diagnose in a scientific manner, for example the primary difference between promiscuity and sexual addiction is essentially the motivation behind the act.
Other scientists interpret of sexual addiction ‘as a compulsion, an impulse control disorder, a sexual desire disorder, a lack of morals and willpower, or a form of obsessive compulsive disorder. ’ Proponents of the sexual addiction concept frequently liken it to food or gambling addiction, “where an outside substance isn’t used to create the high. ”
The American Psychiatric Association (APA) has not yet identified SA as a mental illness, but, the APA has classifications that are useful for grasping sexual behavior disorders. These disorders are called paraphilias. And include: “pedophilia, exhibitionism, voyeurism, sexual etc. ” All of these are typified by “recurrent, intense, sexually arousing fantasies, sexual urges or behaviors” which involve:- non-human objects; the suffering or humiliation of oneself or one’s partner, children or other nonconsenting persons; and clinically significant distress in social, occupational or other important areas of functioning caused by the behavior, sexual urges or fantasies.
It is vital to keep in mind that just because a person takes part in certain sexual behaviors, it does not mean they need to be labeled a sexual addict. The main feature in figuring out if a person is an addict is if that person’s behavior is compulsive. Case in point, a person sporadically looking at pornography is not automatically a sexual addict. However, a person who spends 13 hours a day, and gets fired because of extreme pornography use is most likely a sex addict. Another issue in determining sexual addiction is if the behaviors are used to ‘self-medicate’ and ‘escape reality’.
Even without the consensus within the field of the mental health community, Sexual addiction manifests in addicts as they attempt to ‘medicate their feelings’ and/or ‘cope with their stresses’ so that their sexual behavior becomes the most important coping mechanism in their life.
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Sexual addiction screening test * |
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* Affirmative answers to 13 questions strongly suggest addiction.
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Categories: mental disorders, psychology, summaries
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References
Carnes PJ. Don’t call it love: recovery from sexual addiction. New York: Bantam Books, 1991 42-4
Carnes P. Out of the shadows: understanding sexual addiction. Minneapolis: CompCare Publishers, 1983
Mayo Clinic staff (September 29, 2005). Compulsive sexual behavior. Mental Health Center. Mayo Clinic. Retrieved on 2007-03-11.
Book, Praeger. (1997). Sex & Love Addiction, Treatment & Recovery. New York: Lucerne Publishing.
Bird. M Sexual Addiction And Marriage And Family Therapy: Facilitating Individual And Relationship Healing Through Couple Therapy,. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy. Upland: Jul 2006. Vol. 32, Iss. 3; pg. 297, 13 pgs
Coleman E. The obsessive-compulsive model for describing compulsive sexual behavior. Am J Prev Psychiatr Neurol 1990;2(3):9-14
Vukadinovic Z. Sexual Addiction, Sexual Compulsivity, Sexual Impulsivity, or What? Toward a Theoretical Model The Journal of Sex Research. New York: Aug 2004. Vol. 41, Iss. 3; pg. 225, 10 pgs
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The Adolescent Psychopathology Scale was the basis for the Adolescent Psychopathology Scale- Short form. The author of the concept, William M. Reynolds, PhD. developed the scale to assess the indicators of Psychological disorders in adolescents in a manner which is correlated with DSM-IV stipulations. The purpose of this paper is provide a critical review of the literature related to the use of the specific psychological instrument known as the Adolescent Psychopathology Scale- Short form.
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Purpose of the Adolescent Psychopathology Scale- Short form
The Adolescent Psychopathology Scale- Short form was developed in 1998 and is made up of 12 clinical scales and 2 validity scales. Half of the APS-SF clinical scales are directed towards specific indicators covered in the DSM-IV. These particular scales were intended to model critical DSM-IV symptoms related with these disorders: General Anxiety Disorder, Conduct disorder, Major Depression, Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, Oppositional Defiant Disorder, and Substance Abuse Disorder.
The other six APS-SF clinical scales are not associated with specific DSM IV disorders; however, they do assess significant spheres of adolescent psychosocial issues. Defensiveness and Consistency are the two validity scales which look at characteristics of response validity.
All in all the APS-SF was intended to be a short, dependable and legitimate measure of a number of psychopathological and psychological problems pertinent to the mental adjustment of adolescents.
The Adolescent Psychopathology Scale- Short form Clinical Scales
The APS-SF clinical scales, as mentioned above, include the Conduct Disorder Scale (CND). 15 items appraise a number of antisocial behaviors such as lying, fighting, stealing, cruelty to animals, destruction of property, use of a weapon in a fight, fire setting, refusal to abide by rules at home and at school, issues with police and other problems dealing with behavior. The past six months is the timeline for which the symptoms are considered as to be present or absent.
Oppositional Defiant Disorder (OPD) is another scale. Nine items appraise a negative-contrary behavior, hostility and defiant actions & activities. Symptoms are evaluated as to the incidence of occurrence during the past six months. Substance Abuse Disorder (SUB) includes nine items detailed to a substance, Such as alcohol, cannabis, cocaine etc. And in such are gauged as to the rate of use over the past 6 months. Anger/Violence Proneness (AVP) is covered by 14 items that contend with comprehensive anger and violence against others. Symptoms are evaluated as to ‘presence or absence’ and rate of incidence through out the duration of a set number of time intervals. Academic Problems (ADP) assess a wide spectrum of issues dealing with academic obstacles in school. Nine items appraise ADP; once again symptoms are evaluated as to the incidence of occurrence during the past six months. As is Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD), which is made up of 11 items that measure the broad level of anxiety severity.
The 11 items which make up the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTS) consider the symptomology associated with negative or traumatic events. Most of the PTS items are evaluated on the basis of the presence/absence or rate of occurrence during the last six months. Major Depression (DEP) is another scale which includes 14 items that measures symptoms of Major Depressive Disorder. Symptoms are appraised as to the rate of occurrence during the past two weeks.
The Eating Disturbance (EAT) scale evaluates symptoms of Bulimia Nervosa and Anorexia Nervosa, the five items within this scale deal with secretive eating, excessive eating, and purging over the past three months. The Suicide Scale (SUI) comprises of 6 items which contends with suicidal behavior and ideation. This scale examines behaviors varying from mild suicide ideation to more somber beliefs of killing oneself.
Additionally, the Self-Concept (SCP) scale is made up of nine items that take stock of basic outlook of self worth and self concept. Symptoms are taken into consideration during a number of time intervals. Finally the Interpersonal Problem (IPP) scale makes use of 11 items to assess interpersonal problems. These problems range from social withdrawal and social isolation to friendship problems. Symptoms are also taken into consideration during a number of time intervals.
The Adolescent Psychopathology Scale- Short form Validity Scales
When making use of the APS-SF (or any other test), the examiner would be advised to supplement validity scales with his/her own assessment of an adolescent’s test taking attitude (Reynolds, 1998). The APS-SF has two validity scales which include the Defensiveness Scale (DEF) and the Consistency Response Scale (CNR). DEF scale encompasses six items that shows a highly unlikely or overly positive action or response. In general, DEF considers the examinee’s sincerity and willingness to give truthful answers. The CNR scale contains 14 item pairs that either is contradictory in their subject matter so that like answers signify inconsistent reporting, or have analogous content so that different answers on the two items signify inconsistent reporting.
The Adolescent Psychopathology Scale- Short form Critical Items
26 items within the 115 APS-SF items are deemed critical items because of their subject matter and/or their capacity to distinguish clinical from nonclinical individuals.
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Although the clinical items do no cover a formal scale they are in fact derived from the following scales: Conduct Disorder, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, Eating Disturbance, Conduct Disorder, Substance Abuse Disorder, Major Depression, Anger/Violence Proneness, Academic problems, Suicide, and interpersonal problems.
The Development of the APS-SF
The original APS was the source of the items on the APS-SF. The majority of the items were generated to evaluate specific DSM-IV symtomology of personality and clinical disorders, as well as reflect the time frame associated with relevant symptoms. Preliminary version of the APS was scrutinized by a panel of experts, after which there was an initial field test with a small sample ‘adolescent psychiatric inpatients and out patients’. Items were scrutinized by the experts for prospective gender bias, clearness of the implications of the items, as well as the content Validity of the items. After which, a sample of 9 adolescent psychiatric out patients and in patients finished this particular version and were then interviewed about the comprehensibility of the items and instructions. Items were then dropped or modified accordingly.
While selecting the scales to be included in APS-SF, a survey, asking for information on which scales would be best suited was sent out to over 1,000 psychologists and mental health professionals. The standardization, construction and the validation of the Adolescent Psychopathology Scale- Short form involved standardized samples of over 3,300 individuals from school settings and adolescent inpatients and outpatients from clinical sites.
The total school sample included 2,834 adolescents residing in Arizona, California, Georgia, Michigan, Minnesota, Texas, Wisconsin or Washington. The sample was varied in characteristics such as socioeconomic status, ethnic background, sex, grade and residence (Urban, Suburban, Rural or Farm). The Clinical sample was made up of 506 adolescents from 22 states and 31 clinical sites.
Development of Norms for the APS-SF
A total of 1827 students made up the standardized sample used in development of the norms for APS-SF. This included (and separately normed as well) males (n=900), females (n=927), adolescents aged 12 to 14 years (n=749), adolescents 15-19 years (n=1076) and, moreover, gender-by age group with in these samples. T scores were computed from raw APS-SF scores and have a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10. See Figure 1, 2 & 3 for break downs.
Scoring and Administration
The APS-SF was developed for use in evaluation of adolescent’s ages 12 to 19 years. It was created at third grade level reading ability; caution should be implemented when testing individuals whose first language is not English.
Administration and scoring of the test is quite simple and can be accomplished by technicians and other trained personnel. Interpretation of the APS-SF profiles and test scores is the sole responsibility of qualified professionals.
The test can be administrated to an individual or a group and should be completed within 15 to 20 minutes. There are a minimum number of completed items needed to score the test. This includes the critical items and as well as items from other specified scales. The APS-SF must be scored by the APS-SF Scoring Program, prices for the program and other items are detailed in Figure 4.
Interpretation
Generally, examiners and interpreters should use caution when scores fall close to a cutoff due to the standard error of measurement associate with each scale. When considering the descriptions of clinical severity levels of psychopathology associated with APS-SF T scores, a T score range below 60 is considered a normal range as far as clinical interpretation. T score range between 60 and 64 is deemed subclinical symptom range. A T score range encompassing 65 trough 69 is considered Mild Clinical symptom range. 70-79 is a moderate clinical symptom range and 80 and above is considered the severe clinical symptom range.
Validation and Reliability Studies
The Adolescent Psychopathology Scale- Short form ’s scales include: Conduct Disorder, Oppositional Defiant Disorder, Substance Abuse Disorder, Generalized Anxiety Disorder, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Major Depression that are all designed with items which correspond to DSM IV symptom specification for precise disorders. In so doing, a single item’s contribution to the scale (as in the case of item-with-total scale correlation) indicates content validity. The APS –SF item with total scale correlation coefficient are between 40 to 70 ranges.
Considering criterion related validity Correlation, between MMPI scales and the APS-SF scales varied between 20 and 70. Correlation between specific Reynolds Adolescent Depression scales, Beck Depression Inventory, and Suicide ideation Questionnaire are demonstrated in Figure 5.
Internal Consistency Reliability in standardized sample ranged from 80 to 91. Test-Retest Reliability for clinical scales ranged from 76 to 91 (14 day interval with a sample of 64 adolescents 26 male and 38 females)
Clinical Caveats
There are two main issues of clinical importance when considering the use of the Adolescent Psychopathology Scale- Short form scale. Firstly, the APS-SF is a self report measure. This means that test takers may not respond honestly and hence mask actual symptoms. On the other hand, test takers may over-endorse symptoms and represent themselves in an excessively negative light.
Secondly, it must be stressed that the APS-SF does not provide a definitive DSM-IV diagnosis. Essentially, the scales provide clinical levels of symptology and not the underlying disorder or absence of any disorder. Once, the APS-SF is used to identify individuals with relevant levels of symptoms a follow up with a mental health professional is required to establish the existence, type and degree of an adolescent’s psychiatric disorder.
Another point must be made in the usage of the APS-SF; the clinician is required to maintain standards of ethical decorum. This entails a thorough understanding of the appropriate use of the scale and to appreciate its current limitations.
As with other assessment tools at the professional’s disposal the results of the APS-SF should always be accompanied with clinical interviews, observations, information from parents, schools and clinical records.
Applications of the APS-SF
The APS-SF is suitable in Clinical and non-clinical environments such as schools, juvenile detention halls, correction facilities and substance abuse treatment programs.
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As well as routine assessments of adolescents referred for health related and general adjustment difficulties. Moreover, The APS-SF can be utilized as a means to gauge treatment outcomes, and determine the effectiveness of treatment plans.
Personal Assessment of the Adolescent Psychopathology Scale- Short form
Though, the APS-SF is not a full proof method to diagnose psychopathology in adolescents, it’s design, reliability and validity make it a powerful tool in the hands of the mental health professional. Large groups can be screened together, and the extensive subject matter covered can ensure those who may need mental health services are identified.
Through the course of counseling and therapy the subject the APS-SF can measure the effectiveness of treatment and also provide the professional with an assessment tool to be employed during client intake as a method of discovery.
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Figure 4
Figure 5
References
Bickel, R. & Campbell, A. (2002). Mental health of adolescents in custody: the use of the Adolescent Psychopathology Scale. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 5, 603-609.
DuBois, D. L. Parra, G. R. & Sher, K. J. (2006). Investigation of Profiles of Risk Factors for Adolescent Psychopathology: A Person-Centered Approach. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 35, 386-402
Reynolds, W. M. (1994). Assessment of depression in children and adolescents by self-report questionnaires. In Reynolds, W. M. & Johnston, H. F. , Handbook of depression in children and adolescents. (pp. 209-234). New York, NY: Plenum Press
Reynolds, W. M. (1998) Adolescent Psychopathology Scale. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resourses.
Reynolds, W. M. (2000) Adolescent Psychopathology Scale- Short form: Professional Manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resourses.
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